Friday 25 December 2015

1965-3C DDP-116 introduced

1965-3C DDP-116 introduced


Designed by engineer Gardner Hendrie for Computer Control Corporation (CCC), the DDP-116 is announced at the 1965 Spring Joint Computer Conference. It was the world's first commercial 16-bit minicomputer and 172 systems were sold. The basic computer cost $28,500.

1964-CDC 6600 supercomputer introduced

1964-CDC 6600 supercomputer introduced

The Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600 performs up to 3 million instructions per second —three times faster than that of its closest competitor, the IBM 7030 supercomputer. The 6600 retained the distinction of being the fastest computer in the world until surpassed by its successor, the CDC 7600, in 1968. Part of the speed came from the computer´s design, which used 10 small computers, known as peripheral processing units, to offload the workload from the central processor.

Olivetti Programma 101 is released

Olivetti Programma 101 is released

 

Announced the year previously at the New York World's Fair the Programma 101 goes on sale. This printing programmable calculator was made from discrete transistors and an acoustic delay-line memory. The Programma 101 could do addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as calculate square roots. 40,000 were sold, including 10 to NASA for use on the Apollo space project. 

1964-CDC 6600 supercomputer introduced

1964-CDC 6600 supercomputer introduced


The Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600 performs up to 3 million instructions per second —three times faster than that of its closest competitor, the IBM 7030 supercomputer. The 6600 retained the distinction of being the fastest computer in the world until surpassed by its successor, the CDC 7600, in 1968. Part of the speed came from the computer´s design, which used 10 small computers, known as peripheral processing units, to offload the workload from the central processor.

The Atlas Computer debuts

The Atlas Computer debuts

 

A joint project of England’s Manchester University, Ferranti Computers, and Plessey, Atlas comes online nine years after Manchester’s computer lab begins exploring transistor technology. Atlas was the fastest computer in the world at the time and introduced the concept of “virtual memory,” that is, using a disk or drum as an extension of main memory. System control was provided through the Atlas Supervisor, which some consider to be the first true operating system.

Naval Tactical Data System introduced

Naval Tactical Data System introduced

 

The US Navy Tactical Data System uses computers to integrate and display shipboard radar, sonar and communications data. This real-time information system began operating in the early 1960s. In October 1961, the Navy tested the NTDS on the USS Oriskany carrier and the USS King and USS Mahan frigates. After being successfully used for decades, NTDS was phased out in favor of the newer AEGIS system in the 1980s.

MIT LINC introduced

1962-MIT LINC introduced

 

 

The LINC is an early and important example of a ‘personal computer,’ that is, a computer designed for only one user. It was designed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory engineer Wesley Clark. Under the auspices of a National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant, biomedical research faculty from around the United States came to a workshop at MIT to build their own LINCs, and then bring them back to their home institutions where they would be used. For research, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) supplied the components, and 50 original LINCs were made. The LINC was later commercialized by DEC and sold as the LINC-8.

Minuteman I missile guidance computer developed.

Minuteman I missile guidance computer developed.

Minuteman missiles use transistorized computers to continuously calculate their position in flight. The computer had to be rugged and fast, with advanced circuit design and reliable packaging able to withstand the forces of a missile launch. The military’s high standards for its transistors pushed manufacturers to improve quality control. When the Minuteman I was decommissioned, some universities received these computers for use by students.

NEAC 2203 goes online

NEAC 2203 goes online


An early transistorized computer, the NEAC (Nippon Electric Automatic Computer) includes a CPU, console, paper tape reader and punch, printer and magnetic tape units. It was sold exclusively in Japan, but could process alphabetic and Japanese kana characters. Only about thirty NEACs were sold. It managed Japan's first on-line, real-time reservation system for Kinki Nippon Railways in 1960. The last one was decommissioned in 1979.

The 6 Best Media Streamers











There are many ways to watch online content on your HDTV. Your television itself might have apps, or you might have a Blu-ray player or game system connected with built-in streaming services. If neither case applies, or if your HDTV, Blu-ray player, or game system doesn't have the exact media features you want, you can get a dedicated media hub. For $100 or less, you can set up your HDTV with any online or local media streaming services you need. Among media hubs, six currently stand out and have earned our Editors' Choice distinction over the last two years. The Fire TV is Amazon's first outing in the world of media hubs; its modified Android operating system offers a broad selection of software and services and impressive hackability. The Fire TV Stick gets you the same features for less than half the price, though it isn't quite as fast. The Google Chromecast is also a budget-friendly $35 stick you plug into the back of your HDTV to which you can stream content from your smartphone, tablet, or PC. The Roku Streaming Stick is just $50 and offers Roku's hundreds of content channels along with mobile device control and media streaming. Finally, the aging Apple TV from 2012 offers full access to Apple's iTunes media library, along with AirPlay support for streaming or mirroring from your iPad, iPhone, or Mac.
The Amazon Fire TV, Roku 2, and Apple TV are conventional media streaming boxes. They're small, flat, square-ish devices you place near your HDTV and use to access online services like Netflix and Hulu Plus. Each has its own unique benefits. The Fire TV is Android-based and can play games with the optional Fire Game Controller, and the Bluetooth remote has a built-in microphone for voice searching Amazon's media library. The Roku 2 can access Roku's hundreds of content channels in addition to the major services, and the remote has a headphone jack so you can watch or listen to whatever you want without disturbing anyone. The Apple TV is the only device of the three that supports AirPlay and iOS device screen mirroring, letting iPhone, iPad, and Mac users stream anything from their phone, tablet, or computer to their HDTV.
The Google Chromecast, Roku Streaming Stick, and Amazon Fire TV Stick are smaller and less expensive options that disappear behind your HDTV when you install them. They're USB drive-sized sticks you plug directly into your HDTV's HDMI port and then power with a USB cable. They're also very different from each other. The Roku Streaming Stick is effectively a $50 Roku 2 in stick form with no headphone jack in the remote. The Google Chromecast is a $35 media streamer with no remote or on-screen interface at all. You need a smartphone, tablet, or PC to stream anything to the Chromecast; without one of those devices, it's just a useless plastic stick. But it's incredibly useful and economical if you have the right gadget, with features like individual Chrome tab or full-screen mirroring from a PC. And the Fire TV Stick is basically just a slower version of the Fire TV.
Any of these devices are a great choice for bringing online content to your HDTV. For even more options, check out our Media Hub Product Guide. And if you know you'd rather get a stick than a box, take a look at our head-to-head comparison of the Chromecast, Fire TV Stick, and Roku Stick

Google Might Poll Users on Best Name for Android 7.0

Android 7.0 Narkeler naru? Nellikai Kneer? Narikol Laur? During a Thursday Q&A at Delhi University, Google CEO Sundar Pichai fielded questions about his personal journey, his career, and Google. But attendees were also curious why the Android operating system has never been named after an Indian dessert.

"Like N for nan khatai, N for neyyappam," one man proposed (about 47 minutes into the video below). "Or maybe P for peda."
The suggestion was met by thunderous applause and laughter. "When I meet my mom I'll ask her for suggestions," Pichai responded.
The CEO also suggested that Google might be open to some input from fans when it comes to Android naming. "Maybe what I'll do next time, when we are working on the next release of Android—Android N—maybe we'll do an online poll on what the name should be. And if all the Indians vote..." he said, pausing for applause, "I think we can make it happen."
The latest version of Android, Marshmallow, arrived this fall, a follow-up to Lollipop. Typically, the decision about which treat to name its operating system after has been left up to those at Google. But there are likely a few diehard fans who'd be more than willing to tell the search giant whether it should go with Android Nutella, Nutmeg, Nouget, or Neyyappam.

Samsung Galaxy Tab S 8.4

The Samsung Galaxy Tab S 8.4 ($399, 16GB) is the best small tablet on the market right now largely because of its screen, a shimmering Super AMOLED panel that makes your Web pages, videos, and games look positively glorious. It's a crowded field out there right now, and you may be able to find a small tablet that's better for you and your specific uses. But at the moment, the Tab S 8.4's expandable memory and multimedia prowess make it best for the casual browsing and media playback most small tablets are used for.
Samsung Galaxy Tab S 8.4 - Samsung Galaxy Tab S 8.4
The Galaxy Tab S 8.4 and are extremely similar tablets, just with different-sized screens and a $100 variance in price, so much of this review will be the same as our review of the 10.5. We did test both tablets separately, however.  

Physical Design and Screen

The Galaxy Tab S 8.4 has a design similar to the , but manages to look classy rather than chintzy. A big part of it is getting rid of that ridged, chrome bezel around the edge in exchange for a more subtle band. The 8.4 comes in Titanium Bronze, which is a dark gold color, and Dazzling White, which is white. It's stunningly thin and effortlessly light—at 8.38 by 4.24 by 0.26 inches (HWD), it's thinner and lighter, Samsung would have you know, than the . (10.3 ounces vs. 11.6 ounces.)
The back is slightly textured, soft-touch plastic, with the same stipple effect you see on the S5; there are also two circles that Samsung's line of cases snap on to. Stereo speakers on the top and bottom edges suggest that you watch video on landscape mode; ditto for the IR emitter, which is on the right side. I'm amazed that Samsung got a microSD card slot into something this thin, but there it is.
The screen, though, is the real reason you're here. It's a 2,560-by-1,600 panel like the one on the , but it's a different technology: AMOLED. This turns out to be a big deal.
All you have to do is load a video. The Fire HDX 8.9 has a great LCD screen, laminated for lower reflectivity and better blacks. But colors punch well above their weight on the Tab S 8.4, and outdoor visibility, especially, is kicked up a notch.
I remember Samsung's previous AMOLED tablet, the Galaxy Tab 7.7, and that one went a little too far—colors looked genuinely lurid there. Just like on the Galaxy S5, Samsung has used smart software to dial back the color saturation and keep things looking realistic.
The AMOLED screen also sips, rather than gulps, power. This combined with the 4,900mAh battery yields terrific battery life. I was quite surprised to pull 11 hours, 52 minutes of video playback with Wi-Fi enabled and the screen set to maximum brightness. Far better than the results I've seen from Amazon, Apple, or Google tablets recently.
Performance and Networking
The Galaxy Tab S uses a custom Samsung processor, an "octo-core" Exynos with four 1.9GHz Cortex-A15 cores and four 1.3GHz cores that it switches to when it wants to save energy. On benchmarks, it's a notch behind the latest chips, like the Nvidia Tegra K1 in the and the Qualcomm Snapdragon 805 in the Amazon Fire HDX. Compared with the Apple iPad mini line, it holds its own on productivity, but falls well behind on GPU performance.
That's my main concern with the Galaxy Tab S: Low graphics frame rates made screen transitions a little gummy and meant this isn't the ideal tablet for high-end gaming. Where the Galaxy Tab S gets 14fps onscreen with the GFXBench T-Rex benchmark and 2.9 fps with the Manhattan benchmark, the , Shield Tablet, and all double or triple those results.
Android 4.4 KitKat is on board, with some useful extensions. I love Samsung's dual-paned multitasking mode, which really amps up productivity. Samsung's software sits a little more lightly on the S tablets than it did before. Yes, you can swipe left to get to Samsung's confusing Magazine UX, but you don't have to. Unfortunately, Samsung hasn't announced a Lollipop upgrade for this tablet yet, so don't count on it. But Lollipop's most tablet-friendly feature, multiple user profiles, is already present and supported.
You'll also get some so-called gifts, but they're optional rather than mandatory downloads. The best teasers include three months of Marvel Unlimited comics and three months of Evernote Premium.
Mandatory preloads include Samsung's redundant music player, which has no advantages over Google Play Music; Samsung's video player, which is much easier to navigate than Google's video gallery; Paper Garden, an e-magazine app to add to every other e-magazine app in the world; and Samsung's very own app store.
There's one software glitch that concerned me: The tablets perform poorly with Google's Chrome browser. I found complex pages stalling in Chrome, and I got only an 800 or so in the Browsermark benchmark—a lower score than you'd get on a Galaxy S4 phone. Benchmark scores doubled using Samsung's Internet browser instead, so use that.
The Galaxy Tab S models we tested were Wi-Fi-only, with 802.11 a/b/n/ac wireless, GPS, NFC, and Bluetooth 4.0. Wi-Fi performance was competitive with the iPad mini on distance, but not on speed. Tested against a Meraki router about 20 feet away, we saw double the speed on the iPad as compared with either Tab S, 60-70Mbps down as compared with 20-30Mbps. At 50 feet, the iPad registered 20Mbps as compared with the Galaxy Tab S with around 10Mbps. Only at 75-100 feet, where speeds were low for everyone, did they even out.
The only LTE model available is with AT&T, and it costs $529. The AT&T model supports all of that carrier's LTE bands, including the new band 29 for enhanced downloads. In theory, it'll work decently on T-Mobile's network and with very limited success on Verizon's, but it's locked to AT&T.

Camera and Multimedia

The Galaxy Tab S 8.4 comes with 16GB of storage, of which 11.5GB is user-accessible; you'll fill that up pretty quickly with media, so it's good that the tablet supports microSD memory cards.
The 8-megapixel main camera and 1-megapixel front camera are surprisingly good, for tablet cameras. Outdoor shots were quite sharp, and the LED flash lit up a dark room. The UI and special modes match the Galaxy S5. Both cameras had no trouble achieving 1080p video at 30fps indoors or outdoors, although indoor 1080p videos were a bit noisy. I'm no fan of tablet photography, but these tablets will get the job done.
Video playback, on the other hand, is the Galaxy Tab S's specialty. The tablets have no problem playing H.264, Xvid, or DivX content, and there are plenty of other video playback apps for watching various kinds of files. The Tab 8.4 is also the perfect size for e-reading and digital comics, and it comes with a three-month Marvel Unlimited subscription. Comics, whether through Marvel Unlimited or ComiXology, look gorgeous here.
The dual stereo speakers are loud enough to fill a room, although there's basically no bass. Headphones and Bluetooth speakers also work well here.

Comparisons and Conclusions

Android tablets have certainly grown up. For the past few years, we've recommended tablets like the Nexus 7 because they're less expensive than iOS and Windows alternatives. But the Galaxy Tab S 8.4 isn't less expensive; at $399, it costs more than the iPad mini 2 and the . And those tablets have strengths that the Tab S doesn't, most notably better collections of games and productivity apps.
But I see small tablets primarily as lean-back entertainment devices, so screen, weight, and storage rule supreme. (If you're looking for a productivity tablet, you'll want a larger model like the or .) And the Tab S 8.4 outmatches all comers in those key small-tablet strengths.
If you have a large library of music and video files, Android is the superior platform. The Tab S's microSD card slot lets you easily transfer files and expand the tablet's capacity, the open Android platform lets you transfer and play a wide variety of media without having to deal with iTunes, and nothing beats this screen.
There are other good Android tablet choices, as well. It's a crowded field. The Nvidia Shield Tablet gives you great gameplay for $100 less, at the cost of significantly cheaper-feeling hardware. The Fire HDX 8.9 streams Amazon content in a way the Samsung tablet doesn't, but its lack of Google Play really hobbles it with productivity apps.
So for this holiday season, I'm happy to recommend the Samsung Galaxy Tab S 8.4 as our small-tablet Editors' Choice. If you intend to read, surf, or watch on your pocket-sized tablet, it simply shines.

Wednesday 23 December 2015

1961-IBM Introduces 1400 series

1961-IBM Introduces 1400 series


The 1401 mainframe, the first in the series, replaces earlier vacuum tube technology with smaller, more reliable transistors. Demand called for more than 12,000 of the 1401 computers, and the machine´s success made a strong case for using general-purpose computers rather than specialized systems. By the mid-1960s, nearly half of all computers in the world were IBM 1401s.

1960- DEC PDP-1 introduced

1960- DEC PDP-1 introduced



The typical PDP-1 computer system, which sells for about $120,000, includes a cathode ray tube graphic display, paper tape input/output, needs no air conditioning and requires only one operator; all of which become standards for minicomputers. Its large scope intrigued early hackers at MIT, who wrote the first computerized video game, SpaceWar!, as well as programs to play music. More than 50 PDP-1s were sold.

SAGE system goes online

SAGE system goes online


The first large-scale computer communications network, SAGE connects 23 hardened computer sites in the US and Canada. Its task was to detect incoming Soviet bombers and direct interceptor aircraft to destroy them. Operators directed actions by touching a light gun to the SAGE airspace display. The air defense system used two AN/FSQ-7 computers, each of which used a full megawatt of power to drive its 55,000 vacuum tubes, 175,000 diodes and 13,000 transistors.

1959-IBM 7030 (“Stretch”) completed

1959-IBM 7030 (“Stretch”) completed



IBM´s 7000 series mainframes are the company´s first transistorized computers. At the top of the line sat the 7030, also known as the "Stretch." Nine of the computers, which featured dozens of advanced design innovations later re-discovered by later generations of computer designers were sold, mainly to national laboratories and major scientific users. The knowledge and technologies developed for the Stretch project played a major role in the design of the later IBM System/360.

1958-RCA introduces its Model 501 transistorized computer

1958-RCA introduces its Model 501 transistorized computer

 

The 501 is built on a 'building block' concept which allows it to be highly flexible for many different uses and could simultaneously control up to 63 tape drives—very useful for large databases of information. For many business users, quick access to this huge storage capability outweighed its relatively slow processing speed. Customers included US military as well as industry. 

MIT researchers build the TX-0


MIT researchers build the TX-0


The TX-0 (“Transistor eXperimental - 0”) is the first general-purpose programmable computer built with transistors. For easy replacement, designers placed each transistor circuit inside a "bottle," similar to a vacuum tube. Constructed at MIT´s Lincoln Laboratory, the TX-0 moved to the MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics, where it hosted some early imaginative tests of programming, including writing a Western movie shown on television, 3-D tic-tac-toe, and a maze in which a mouse found martinis and became increasingly inebriated.

1957-Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) founded

1957-Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) founded

 

DEC is founded initially to make electronic modules for test, measurement, prototyping and control markets. Its founders were Ken and Stan Olsen, and Harlan Anderson. Headquartered in Maynard, Massachusetts, Digital Equipment Corporation, took over 8,680 square foot leased space in a nineteenth century mill that once produced blankets and uniforms for soldiers who fought in the Civil War. General Georges Doriot and his pioneering venture capital firm, American Research and Development, invested $70,000 for 70% of DEC’s stock to launch the company in 1957. The mill is still in use today as an office park (Clock Tower Place) today.

1956-Librascope LGP-30 introduced

1956-Librascope LGP-30 introduced

 

 

Physicist Stan Frankel, intrigued by small, general-purpose computers, developed the MINAC at Caltech. The Librascope division of defense contractor General Precision buys Frankel’s design, renaming it the LGP-30 in 1956. Used for science and engineering as well as simple data processing, the LGP-30 was a “bargain” at less than $50,000 and an early example of a ‘personal computer,’ that is, a computer made for a single user.

1955-English Electric DEUCE introduced

1955-English Electric DEUCE introduced

 

A commercial version of Alan Turing's Pilot ACE, called DEUCE—the Digital Electronic Universal Computing Engine -- is used mostly for science and engineering problems and a few commercial applications. Over 30 were completed, including one delivered to Australia.

The RAND Corporation’s JOHNNIAC runs-1954

The RAND Corporation’s JOHNNIAC runs-1954

 

The JOHNNIAC computer is one of 17 computers that followed the basic design of Princeton's INstitute of Advanced Study (IAS) computer. It was named after John von Neumann, a world famous mathematician and computer pioneer of the day. Completed in 1954, JOHNNIAC was used for scientific and engineering calculations. It was also repeatedly expanded and improved throughout its 13-year lifespan. Many innovative programs were created for JOHNNIAC, including the time-sharing system JOSS that allowed many users to simultaneously access the machine. 

IBM ships its Model 701 “Defense Calculator”

IBM ships its Model 701 “Defense Calculator”

 



During three years of production, IBM sells 19 machines to research laboratories, aircraft companies, and the federal government. Also known as the “Defense Calculator,” the 701 rented for $15,000 a month. Arthur Samuels used the 701 to write the first computer program designed to play checkers. The 701 introductions also marked the beginning of IBM’s entry into the large-scale computer market, a market it came to dominate in later decades.

IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator introduced

IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator introduced

 

IBM establishes the 650 as its first mass-produced computer, with the company selling 450 in just one year. Spinning at 12,500 rpm, the 650´s magnetic data-storage drum allowed much faster access to stored information than other drum-based machines. The Model 650 was also highly popular in universities, where a generation of students first learned programming.

Grimsdale and Webb build early transistorized computer

Grimsdale and Webb build early transistorized computer

 

Working under Tom Kilburn at England’s Manchester University, Richard Grimsdale and Douglas Webb demonstrate a prototype transistorized computer, the "Manchester TC", on November 16, 1953. The 48-bit machine used 92 point-contact transistors and 550 diodes.

J. Lyons & Company introduce LEO-1


J. Lyons & Company introduce LEO-1


Modeled after the Cambridge University EDSAC computer, the president of Lyons Tea Co. has the LEO built to solve the problem of production scheduling and delivery of cakes to the hundreds of Lyons tea shops around England. After the success of the first LEO, Lyons went into business manufacturing computers to meet the growing need for data processing systems in business. The LEO was England’s first commercial computer and was performing useful work before any other commercial computer system in the world.

IAS computer operational

IAS computer operational

 

The Institute of Advanced Study (IAS) computer is a multi-year research project conducted under the overall supervision of world-famous mathematician John von Neumann. The notion of storing both data and instructions in memory became known as the ‘stored program concept’ to distinguish it from earlier methods of instructing a computer. The IAS computer was designed for scientific calculations and it performed essential work for the US atomic weapons program. Over the next few years, the basic design of the IAS machine was copied in at least 17 places and given similar-sounding names, for example, the MANIAC at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory; the ILLIAC at the University of Illinois; the Johnniac at The Rand Corporation; and the SILLIAC in Australia.

First Univac 1 delivered to US Census Bureau

First Univac 1 delivered to US Census Bureau

 

The Univac 1 is the first commercial computer to attract widespread public attention. Although manufactured by Remington Rand, the machine was often mistakenly referred to as “the IBM Univac." Univac computers were used in many different applications but utilities, insurance companies and the US military were major customers. One biblical scholar even used a Univac 1 to compile a concordance to the King James version of the Bible. Created by Presper Eckert and John Mauchly -- designers of the earlier ENIAC computer -- the Univac 1 used 5,200 vacuum tubes and weighed 29,000 pounds. Remington Rand eventually sold 46 Univac 1s at more than $1 million each. 

SEAC and SWAC completed

SEAC and SWAC completed

 

he Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) is the first stored-program computer completed in the United States. It was built in Washington D.C. as a laboratory for testing components and systems and for setting computer standards. It was also the first computer to use all-diode logic, a technology more reliable than vacuum tubes. Magnetic tape in the external storage units (shown on the right of this photo) stored programming information, coded subroutines, numerical data, and output. The NBS also built the Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) at the Institute for Numerical Analysis in Los Angeles. Rather than testing components like its companion, the SEAC, the SWAC had an objective of computing using already-developed technology. SWAC was used to create the first computer-scanned image as well as to discover five previously unknown Mersenne prime numbers.

Ferranti Mark I Sold-1951

Ferranti Mark I Sold-1951

 

 

The title of “first commercially available general-purpose computer” probably goes to Britain’s Ferranti Mark I for its sale of its first Mark I computer to Manchester University. The Mark 1 was a refinement of the experimental Manchester “Baby” and Manchester Mark 1 computers, also at Manchester University. A British government contract spurred its initial development but a change in government led to loss of funding and the second and only other Mark I was sold at a major loss to the University of Toronto, where it was re-christened FERUT.

 

 

Manchester Mark I completed

Manchester Mark I completed


Built by a team led by engineers Frederick Williams and Tom Kilburn, the Mark I serves as the prototype for Ferranti’s first computer – the Ferranti Mark 1. The Manchester Mark I used more than 1,300 vacuum tubes and occupied an area the size of a medium room. Its “Williams-Kilburn tube” memory system was later adopted by several other early computer systems around the world.



Plans to build the Simon 1 relay logic machine are published

The hobbyist magazine Radio Electronics publishes Edmund Berkeley's design for the Simon 1 relay computer from 1950 to 1951. The Simon 1 used relay logic and cost about $600 to build. In his book Giant Brains, Berkeley noted - “We shall now consider how we can design a very simple machine that will think. Let us call it Simon, because of its predecessor, Simple Simon... Simon is so simple and so small in fact that it could be built to fill up less space than a grocery-store box; about four cubic feet.”

Tuesday 22 December 2015

MADDIDA developed

MADDIDA developed


MADDIDA is a digital drum-based differential analyzer. This type of computer is useful in performing many of the mathematical equations scientists and engineers encounter in their work. It was originally created for a nuclear missile design project in 1949 by a team led by Fred Steele. It used 53 vacuum tubes and hundreds of germanium diodes, with a magnetic drum for memory. Tracks on the drum did the mathematical integration. MADDIDA was flown across the country for a demonstration to John von Neumann, who was impressed. Northrop was initially reluctant to make MADDIDA a commercial product, but by the end of 1952, six had sold.

NPL Pilot ACE completed

NPL Pilot ACE completed


Based on ideas from Alan Turing, Britain´s Pilot ACE computer is constructed at the National Physical Laboratory. "We are trying to build a machine to do all kinds of different things simply by programming rather than by the addition of extra apparatus," Turing said at a symposium on large-scale digital calculating machinery in 1947 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The design packed 800 vacuum tubes into a relatively compact 12 square feet.
 
 

EDSAC completed

EDSAC completed



The first practical stored-program computer, EDSAC is built at Cambridge University using vacuum tubes and mercury delay lines for memory. The EDSAC project was led by Cambridge professor and director of the Cambridge Computation Laboratory, Maurice Wilkes. Wilkes' ideas grew out of the Moore School lectures he had attended three years earlier. One major advance in programming was Wilkes' use of a library of short programs, called “subroutines,” stored on punched paper tapes and used for performing common repetitive calculations within a lager program.

1950-ERA 1101 introduced

1950-ERA 1101 introduced


One of the first commercially produced computers, the company´s first customer was the US Navy. The 1101, designed by ERA but built by Remington-Rand, was intended for high-speed computing and stored 1 million bits on its magnetic drum, one of the earliest magnetic storage devices and a technology which ERA had done much to perfect in its own laboratories. Many of the 1101’s basic architectural details were used again in later Remington-Rand computers until the 1960s.

1949-CSIRAC runs first program

1949-CSIRAC runs first program


While many early digital computers were based on similar designs, such as the IAS and its copies, others are unique designs, like the CSIRAC. Built in Sydney, Australia by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for use in its Radio physics Laboratory in Sydney, CSIRAC was designed by British-born Trevor Pearcey, and used unusual 12-hole paper tape. It was transferred to the Department of Physics at the University of Melbourne in 1955 and remained in service until 1964.

SSEC goes on display

SSEC goes on display


The Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) project, led by IBM engineer Wallace Eckert, uses both relays and vacuum tubes to process scientific data at the rate of 50 multiplication per second. Before it’s decommissioning in 1952, the SSEC produced the moon-position tables used for plotting the course of the 1969 Apollo flight to the moon. The SSEC was one of the few and last of the generation of ‘super calculators’ to be built using electromechanical technology.

Public unveiling of ENIAC

Public unveiling of ENIAC


Started in 1943, the ENIAC computing system was built by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania. Because of its electronic, as opposed to electromechanical, technology, it is over 1,000 times faster than any previous computer. ENIAC used plugboards and switches for programming, occupied more than 1,000 square feet, used about 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighed 30 tons. It was believed that ENIAC had done more calculation over the ten years it was in operation than all of humanity had up until that time.

1948-First Computer Program to Run on a Computer

1948-First Computer Program to Run on a Computer


University of Manchester researchers Frederic Williams, Tom Kilburn, and Geoff Toothill develop the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), better known as the Manchester Baby. The Baby was built to test a new memory technology developed by Williams and Kilburn -- soon known as the Williams Tube – which was the first electronic random access memory for a computer. The first program, consisting of seventeen instructions and written by Kilburn, ran on June 21st, 1948. This was the first program to ever run on an electronic stored-program computer.

1945-John von Neumann writes First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC

1945-John von Neumann writes First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC



In a widely circulated paper, mathematician John von Neumann outlines the architecture of a stored-program computer, including electronic storage of programming information and data -- which eliminates the need for more clumsy methods of programming such as plugboards, punched cards and paper. Hungarian-born von Neumann demonstrated prodigious expertise in hydrodynamics, ballistics, meteorology, game theory, statistics, and the use of mechanical devices for computation. After the war, he concentrated on the development of Princeton´s Institute for Advanced Studies computer.

Project Whirlwind begins

Project Whirlwind begins


During World War II, the US Navy approached the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) about building a flight simulator to train bomber crews. The team first builds a large analog computer, but found it inaccurate and inflexible. After designers saw a demonstration of the ENIAC computer, they decided instead on using a digital approach, while the project slowly changed from a flight simulator to an air defense system. By the time Whirlwind was completed in 1951, the Navy had lost interest in the project, though the US. Air Force eventually supported “Whirlwind II,” a new air defense computer to be used as part of the SAGE continental air defense system.

Harvard Mark 1 is completed

Harvard Mark 1 is completed


Conceived by Harvard physics professor Howard Aiken, and designed and built by IBM, the Harvard Mark 1 is a room-sized, relay-based calculator. The machine had a fifty-foot long camshaft running the length of machine that synchronized the machine’s thousands of component parts and used 3,500 relays. The Mark 1 produced mathematical tables but was soon superseded by electronic stored-program computers.

Curt Herzstark designs Curta calculator

Curt Herzstark designs Curta calculator


Curt Herzstark was an Austrian engineer who worked in his family’s manufacturing business until he was arrested by the Nazis in 1943. While imprisoned at Buchenwald concentration camp for the rest of World War II, he refines his pre-war design of a calculator featuring a modified version of Leibniz’s “stepped drum” design. After the war, Herzstark’s Curta made history as the smallest all-mechanical, four-function calculator ever built.

1944- First Colossus operational at Bletchley Park

1944- First Colossus operational at Bletchley Park



Designed by British engineer Tommy Flowers, the Colossus is designed to break the complex Lorenz ciphers used by the Nazis during World War II. A total of ten Colossi were delivered, each using as many as 2,500 vacuum tubes. A series of pulleys transported continuous rolls of punched paper tape containing possible solutions to a particular code. Colossus reduced the time to break Lorenz messages from weeks to hours. Most historians believe that the use of Colossus machines significantly shortened the war by providing evidence of enemy intentions and beliefs. The machine’s existence was not made public until the 1970s.


1943-Bell Labs Relay Interpolator is completed

1943-Bell Labs Relay Interpolator is completed


The US Army asked Bell Laboratories to design a machine to assist in testing its M-9 gun director, a type of analog computer that aims large guns to their targets. Mathematician George Stibitz recommends using a relay-based calculator for the project. The result was the Relay Interpolator, later called the Bell Labs Model II. The Relay Interpolator used 440 relays, and since it was programmable by paper tape, was used for other applications following the war.

1942 -The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) is completed

1942 -The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) is completed


After successfully demonstrating a proof-of-concept prototype in 1939, Professor John Vincent Atanasoff receives funds to build a full-scale machine at Iowa State College (now University). The machine was designed and built by Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry between 1939 and 1942. The ABC was at the center of a patent dispute related to the invention of the computer, which was resolved in 1973 when it was shown that ENIAC co-designer John Mauchly had seen the ABC shortly after it became functional.

The legal result was a landmark: Atanasoff was declared the originator of several basic computer ideas, but the computer as a concept was declared un-patentable and thus freely open to all. A full-scale working replica of the ABC was completed in 1997, proving that the ABC machine functioned as Atanasoff had claimed. The replica is currently on display at the Computer History Museum.

The first Bombe is completed

The first Bombe is completed


Built as an electromechanical mechanical means of decrypting Nazi ENIGMA-based military communications during World War II, the British Bombe is conceived of by computer pioneer Alan Turing and Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company. Hundreds of bombes were built, their purpose to ascertain the daily rotor start positions of Enigma cipher machines, which in turn allowed the Allies to decrypt German messages.

1940-The Complex Number Calculator (CNC) is completed

1940-The Complex Number Calculator (CNC) is completed

In 1939, Bell Telephone Laboratories completes this calculator, designed by scientist George Stibitz. In 1940, Stibitz demonstrated the CNC at an American Mathematical Society conference held at Dartmouth College. Stibitz stunned the group by performing calculations remotely on the CNC (located in New York City) using a Teletype terminal connected via to New York over special telephone lines. This is likely the first example of remote access computing.

Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3 Computer-1941

Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3 Computer-1941


The Z3, an early computer built by German engineer Konrad Zuse working in complete isolation from developments elsewhere, uses 2,300 relays, performs floating point binary arithmetic, and has a 22-bit word length. The Z3 was used for aerodynamic calculations but was destroyed in a bombing raid on Berlin in late 1943. Zuse later supervised a reconstruction of the Z3 in the 1960s, which is currently on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.

Hewlett-Packard is founded in 1939

Hewlett-Packard is founded in 1939


David Packard and Bill Hewlett found their company in a Palo Alto, California garage. Their first product, the HP 200A Audio Oscillator, rapidly became a popular piece of test equipment for engineers. Walt Disney Pictures ordered eight of the 200B model to test recording equipment and speaker systems for the 12 specially equipped theatres that showed the movie “Fantasia” in 1940.

“Model K” Adder

“Model K” Adder



Bell Laboratories scientist George Stibitz uses relays for a demonstration adder


Called the “Model K” Adder because he built it on his “Kitchen” table, this simple demonstration circuit provides proof of concept for applying Boolean logic to the design of computers, resulting in construction of the relay-based Model I Complex Calculator in 1939. That same year in Germany, engineer Konrad Zuse built his Z2 computer, also using telephone company relays.